Executive Summary of Air–Ground Teaming for the Battlespace: Extended Analysis of a 2-Week Demonstration of Flexible Human–Machine Integrated Formations

Author(s):

Anthony L. Baker, Murat Kucukosmanoglu, Scott Kerick, Ioannis Schizas, Kimberly A. Pollard, Sean M. Fitzhugh, Catherine E. Neubauer, and Samantha Berg

Abstract:

This technical note synthesizes findings from a 2-week, simulation-based air–ground teaming demonstration conducted at ARL’s INFORMS Laboratory. Thirteen Soldiers operated a mixed air–ground formation consisting of a manned control vehicle, two robotic combat vehicles, a Future Vertical Lift platform, and shared launched effects against a human-controlled opposing force under contested conditions. Across multiple analyses, including unmanned asset handoff dynamics, vehicle trajectory structure, operator workload, individual differences, and team communication, the findings show that the formation adapted rapidly and developed effective coordination patterns through repeated cycles of planning, mission execution, and after-action review. Handoff behavior converged on a stable air–ground control relationship, movement patterns reflected role-differentiated tactical behavior, and subjective workload remained stable despite increasing mission complexity. Together, these results suggest that air–ground teaming is feasible under the conditions tested and that Soldiers can integrate autonomous capabilities without incurring unsustainable cognitive burden. The broader implication is that future battlespace advantages will depend in part on how quickly formations can absorb new autonomous capabilities, integrate them into unit practice, and refine tactics as those capabilities evolve. The summary offers implications for Human–Machine Integrated Formation development, training, and future experimentation.